Different Philosophies on Risk Assessment: Case Study of the United States and European Union :: Politics

Different Philosophies on Risk Assessment: Case Study of the United States and European Union Introduction â€Å"Science-based regulation should never be misunderstood to mean science converted, at its face value, into regulation.†[1] Hence, regulation based entirely on ‘sound’ science, as the United States urges its trading partners to adopt, is only theoretically possible. The values of a society will ultimately affect the outcome of science-based risk assessment. The origin of facts is contingent on what the society deems is most important for research, how it is researched, and which of the research matters in the final assessment. The interpretation of facts will be determined by regulatory institutions, official expertise, economic models, and assumptions on what constitutes a desirable society.[2] The risk assessment methodologies and risk management approaches of the United States and the European Union towards genetically modified foods demonstrate this truth, and this situation will be explored as a case study of science – based regula tion. In science lies the facts, but the origin and interpretation of the facts cannot be separated from political, social, and cultural influences. Background The European Union and the United States have different risk assessment and management policies which arise from political and socioeconomic differences within these two societies. From a political and cultural standpoint, the clout of strong consumer unions and farmers in the European Union and similar pull from the industrial sector in the United States cannot be separated from the decision-making process. Socially, we find that risk perception between the two societies is quite different. American society exhibits consumer acceptance and the European Union exhibits consumer recalcitrance towards GM-foods. More importantly, the differing philosophies in risk assessment are structured so that either entity can have their risk assessments arrive at their desired outcomes. The United States insists that risk assessment of genetically modified foods be based on ‘sound’ science and rules. Though the European Union does not directly counter this position, it did recently make clear in The EU Communiquà © on the Precautionary Principle[3] that it would reserve its sovereign right to exercise the precautionary principle when the known facts surrounding the risks of a particular GM-food were not enough to establish the food as safe for human consumption. Different Philosophies on Risk Assessment: Case Study of the United States and European Union :: Politics Different Philosophies on Risk Assessment: Case Study of the United States and European Union Introduction â€Å"Science-based regulation should never be misunderstood to mean science converted, at its face value, into regulation.†[1] Hence, regulation based entirely on ‘sound’ science, as the United States urges its trading partners to adopt, is only theoretically possible. The values of a society will ultimately affect the outcome of science-based risk assessment. The origin of facts is contingent on what the society deems is most important for research, how it is researched, and which of the research matters in the final assessment. The interpretation of facts will be determined by regulatory institutions, official expertise, economic models, and assumptions on what constitutes a desirable society.[2] The risk assessment methodologies and risk management approaches of the United States and the European Union towards genetically modified foods demonstrate this truth, and this situation will be explored as a case study of science – based regula tion. In science lies the facts, but the origin and interpretation of the facts cannot be separated from political, social, and cultural influences. Background The European Union and the United States have different risk assessment and management policies which arise from political and socioeconomic differences within these two societies. From a political and cultural standpoint, the clout of strong consumer unions and farmers in the European Union and similar pull from the industrial sector in the United States cannot be separated from the decision-making process. Socially, we find that risk perception between the two societies is quite different. American society exhibits consumer acceptance and the European Union exhibits consumer recalcitrance towards GM-foods. More importantly, the differing philosophies in risk assessment are structured so that either entity can have their risk assessments arrive at their desired outcomes. The United States insists that risk assessment of genetically modified foods be based on ‘sound’ science and rules. Though the European Union does not directly counter this position, it did recently make clear in The EU Communiquà © on the Precautionary Principle[3] that it would reserve its sovereign right to exercise the precautionary principle when the known facts surrounding the risks of a particular GM-food were not enough to establish the food as safe for human consumption.

Negative effects of video games Essay

The US video game market reached nearly $ 21 billion in sales in 2008. On an average an adolescent spends about 10-13 hours per week playing video games. The cause may be attributed to the fact that video games today have become a necessity more than a luxury. They are a unique form of entertainment because they encourage players to become a part of the game. However, video games have both positive and negative impacts on players. While some of them are fun and entertaining, others have drastic effects on children. On one hand, video games are a source of leisure. People play video games because they want to get away from their everyday stressful life since these games are fun and interesting way to spend time. Another major advantage of playing video games includes improving children’s computer literacy since most of the games nowadays require internet. Also research studies show that video games tend to increase one’s hand eye coordination as well as their ability to make quick and reasonable judgements. Educational games provide practice in problem solving and logic and are thus becoming more prevalent as teaching tools for youth in primary and secondary schools. However this is just one side of the coin. Video Games with violent content have far reaching effects on children. Research studies suggest that violent video games increase aggressive behavior among youth. Since violent acts are often rewarded and continually repeated in a game, it highly influences them. Children who see a lot of violence are more likely to view violence as an effective way of settling conflicts and are more likely to assume that violence is acceptable behavior. Also, if one buys an intriguing game, he may get addicted to it, which may lead to drastic consequences. An addiction may lead to physical problems like obesity, headaches, damage to eye, decline in schoolwork productivity, spending problems and confusion between real and unreal. Over dependence on video games could also foster social isolation, as they are often played alone.

A Brief History of the African Country of Kenya

Fossils found in East Africa suggest that protohumans roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent finds near Kenyas Lake Turkana indicate that hominids lived in  the area  2.6 million years ago. Cushitic-speaking people from northern Africa moved into the area that is now Kenya beginning around 2000 BC. Arab traders began frequenting the Kenya coast around the first century AD. Kenyas proximity to the Arabian Peninsula invited colonization, and Arab and Persian settlements sprouted along the coast by the eighth century. During the first millennium AD, Nilotic and Bantu peoples moved into the region, and the latter now comprises three-quarters of Kenyas population. The Europeans Arrive The Swahili language, a mixture of Bantu and Arabic, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. Arab dominance on the coast was eclipsed by the arrival in 1498 of the Portuguese, who gave way in turn to Islamic control under the Imam of Oman in the 1600s. The United Kingdom established its influence in the 19th century. The colonial history of Kenya dates from the Berlin Conference of 1885 when the European powers first partitioned East Africa into spheres of influence. In 1895, the U.K. Government established the East African Protectorate and, soon after, opened the fertile highlands to white settlers. The settlers were allowed a voice in government even before it was officially made a U.K. colony in 1920, but Africans were prohibited from direct political participation until 1944. The Mau Mau  Resist Colonialism From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British colonial rule. During this period, African participation in the political process increased rapidly. Kenya Achieves Independence The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Kenya became independent on December 12, 1963, and the next year joined the Commonwealth. Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the large Kikuyu ethnic group and head of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), became Kenyas first President. The minority party, Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small ethnic groups, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and joined KANU. The Road to Kenyattas One-Party State A small but significant leftist opposition party, the Kenya Peoples Union (KPU), was formed in 1966, led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former Vice President, and Luo elder. The KPU was banned shortly after and its leader detained. No new opposition parties were formed after 1969, and KANU became the sole political party. At Kenyattas death in August 1978, Vice President Daniel Arap Moi became President. A New Democracy in Kenya In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state, and parliamentary elections were held in September 1983. The 1988 elections reinforced the one-party system. However, in December 1991, Parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution. By early 1992, several new parties had formed, and multiparty elections were held in December 1992. Because of divisions in the opposition, however, Moi was reelected for another 5-year term, and his KANU party retained a majority of the legislature. Parliamentary reforms in November 1997 expanded political rights, and the number of political parties grew rapidly. Again because of a divided opposition, Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections. KANU won 113 out of 222 parliamentary seats, but, because of defections, had to depend on the support of minor parties to forge a working majority.In October 2002, a coalition of opposition parties joined forces with a fact ion which broke away from KANU to form the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). In December 2002, the NARC candidate, Mwai Kibaki, was elected the country’s third President. President Kibaki received 62% of the vote, and NARC also won 59% of the parliamentary seats. Source US Department of State Background Notes.